Born into slavery in the first century AD, Epictetus was a leading Greek philosopher of the Stoic school. He spent most of his life in Rome before the emperor Domitian banished all philosophers from the city in AD 93; his exile then took him to Nicopolis in Greece. His teachings were recorded by his pupil Arrian, who published both the Encheiridion and Discourses. The Discourses, which Arrian claimed to have taken down during lectures he attended, comprised eight books of which we have onl...

How did the city state of Rome rise inexorably to become the dominant power in the Mediterranean and much of the Western world?In short, first of all it overcame the established Carthaginian Empire despite the remarkable exploits of Hannibal. And, largely at the same time, it gradually subjugated the many and varied city states of Greece, despite various allied opposition.The rise of Rome is one of the great stories of world history, and fortunately, we have a reliable and ...

Philosophical Investigations - a landmark in 20th century philosophy - was published in 1953, two years after the death of its author. In the preface written in Cambridge in 1945 where he was professor of philosophy he states: ‘Four years ago I had occasion to re-read my first book (the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus) and to explain its ideas to someone. It suddenly seemed to me that I should publish those old thoughts and the new ones together: that the latter could be seen in the right l...

The Romans have landed in Britain. The invasion is over, but the war has just begun.The legions march inland, but progress is slow, hampered by vast, ancient forests, swamps and treacherous rivers that must be crossed. But, guided by traitorous Celts blinded by self-interest, progress they do.Marshalling the fractious tribes, Caratacos plans the first major battle for the only fording point of the mighty Vaga River.Meanwhile, Cullen, now a warrior of renown, is dispa...

In his introduction to Early Greek Philosophy, John Burnet points out the particular focus of the pre-Socratics on the ‘cosmological’ character of their enquiries. They determined, he explains, to look into the natural world around them. The period can be said to mark the rise of scientific enquiry epitomised by the Atomists and the mathematicians of the Pythagorean School. It was this focus on natural phenomena that set the pattern for the activity that became known as philosophy....

Devotions Upon Emergent Occasions is a prose work published in 1624. It consists of a series of meditations, prayers and reflections that Donne wrote while he was recovering from a serious illness. It is divided into 23 sections, each representing a different meditation on various aspects of life, death and spirituality. Donne explores themes such as the fragility and uncertainty of life, the interconnectedness of humanity, and the presence of God in times of suffering.Devotions is conside...

The Russian Revolution of 1917 was one of the most cataclysmic events in world history, profoundly shaping politics, international relations, social patterns, economics and science in the century that followed. It created long-lasting aftershocks which travelled far beyond its geographical borders. How did it happen? What were the sequence of events that led, following the shocking upheaval of the old Romanov order, to a fierce and violent rivalry between a variety of revolutionary faction...

Written in 516, The Rule of Saint Benedict for monastic living has been soul-inspiring for a countless number of people not only monks, nuns and priests, but also a considerable number of lay people. It covers matters of doctrine, the structure of the monastery as the House of God, and observance of the Divine Office. The Rule gives a fascinating insight into the standards and behaviour expected of monks in their everyday lives. It remains notable for embodying the concept of a written con...

From a ruined land, a hero will rise.Britannia, 42AD. The wild island at the fringe of the world is in chaos. Into the turmoil marches the mightiest war machine in history: the legions of Rome.In a land torn apart by conflict, an orphaned boy must come of age within a tribe he despises.

The Water Margin is one of the most popular classics of early Chinese literature. It tells the vigorous story of 108 characters who, falling foul of the established state authorities are forced to become outlaws. They form a bandit community in Liangshan Marsh, becoming such a formidable force in their own right that they threaten the power of government itself.The author, Shi Nain, writing in the 14th century, the time of the Ming Dynasty, presents the tale with all the force and d...

It is June 1936. Leon Trotsky (1879-1940) has finally been granted a visa for asylum in Norway, having been banned first from living in Paris, and then the whole of France. With him comes the draft of The Revolution Betrayed: What Is the Soviet Union and Where Is It Going?, which is completed and sent to the publishers on the 4th of August. The book, published by Faber in 1937, is considered to be Trotsky’s major work on Stalinism. Trotsky’s passion for the spirit of the Revolution he co-f...

Epicurus of Samos (341-270 BCE) was the founder of the philosophical system to which he gave his name: Epicureanism. It is a label that is often misused and misunderstood today, with ‘a life of pleasure’ as the key aim misinterpreted as a life of indulgence. In fact, the philosophy of Epicurus demonstrated also by his life, was anything but! He established a school in Athens called The Garden, underpinned by his system of ethics.He promoted, by his own example, a simple, ordered, c...